Project Management Processes

Traditionally, project management includes a number of elements: four to five process groups, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology or terminology used, the same basic project management processes will be used. Major process groups generally include:

• initiation
• planning or design
• production or execution
• monitoring and controlling
• closing

Welding Symbols And Definitions

Industrial Drawings Information

1 -  Preliminary Drawings .  (design concepts)      

2 - Contract drawings.

3 - Working drawings . (actual construction)    

4 - Shop drawing. (between design and construction)

5 - As-built drawings. (as completed or executed)

1 -  Preliminary Drawings

• Preliminary drawings prepared to the degree that owner can visualize the total project.
• Preliminary drawings complete enough to allow the preparation of a realistic budget estimate.
• Anything that can contribute to a more complete understanding of the client shall be considered.

2  Contract drawings.

• The contract drawings are used as an essential part of the contract.
• Keep a set on the job with all changes and revisions posted.

3  Working drawings .

• Based on the design presented in the preliminary drawings, approved by owner.
• The Working Drawings include all the information needed to obtain a building permits
• The approved design is not changed but it is further developed, defined, and improved.
• Working drawings together with specifications give complete picture of the project.
• Used by several groups of people.  Hence should be prepared to meet the requirement of each group.

4  Shop drawing.

• A shop drawing is a drawing or set of drawings produced by the contractor, supplier, manufacturer, subcontractor, or fabricator.
• Shop drawings are reviewed by the design professional.
• Approval of the shop drawings by Design Professional is a restricted approval (check against the intent of design drawings only)
• Shop drawings are actually an extension and further development of working drawings.
• Shop drawings do not change the intent of the working drawings.
• Prepared by subcontractors or material suppliers.  In some cases also by the general contractor.
• Shop drawings are provided for works such as:  Installation and fabrication, structural steel, mill work, metal windows and doors, pipes and pumps and etc.....
• Responsibility of errors and omissions in shop drawings lies with the contractor/subcontractor.
• Timely approval of shop drawings is of prime importance!
• Shop drawings approval may effect project schedule, if not submitted on time.
• Record shop drawings in contractor’s submittal log.
• Shop drawings should be stamped and dated immediately upon receipt.

5  As-built drawings

• Most specifications require that the contractor refrain from ordering material until the shop drawings are approved officially.  (IN WRITING)
• Usually these are “location drawings” to which the owner may refer for maintenance and repairs.
• Working drawings show ”proposed” locations for pipes, valves, man holes, etc....., as built drawings show “actual” locations, of installations.
• Usually general contractor or sub-contractors prepare as-built drawings.
• Requirement for as-builtdrawing, should be included in bidding documents.
• If not included in the contract documents, and if required legally, can be added by issuing a change order.
• The term as-built drawings in unpopular because of some legal difficulties with some design professionals. 

Legal  Requirements :        

• Seal of design professional.
• Seal of surveyors for site drawings.
• Seal of AE for general project drawings.
• Seal on various supporting drawings by related design professional e.g..  Landscape architect, mechanical/electrical engineer.
• Each drawing sheet must contain a title block with:
• Number of project and sheet
• Date of drawings
• Type of information (plan, section)
• Name of design professional
• Checked by, date checked, etc....

Different types of welding rods and applications

INTRODUCTION

There are many different types of electrodes used in the shielded metal arc welding, (SMAW) process. The intent of this guide is to help with the identification and selection of these electrodes.

ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION

Arc welding electrodes are identified using the A.W.S, (American Welding Society) numbering system and are made in sizes from 1/16 to 5/16 . An example would be a welding rod identified as an 1/8" E6011 electrode.The electrode is 1/8" in diameter

The "E" stands for arc welding electrode.

Next will be either a 4 or 5 digit number stamped on the electrode. The first two numbers of a 4 digit number and the first 3 digits of a 5 digit number indicate the minimum tensile strength (in thousands of pounds per square inch) of the weld that the rod will produce, stress relieved. Examples would be as follows:

E60xx would have a tensile strength of 60,000 psi E110XX would be 110,000 psi

The next to last digit indicates the position the electrode can be used in.

1.     EXX1X is for use in all positions

2.     EXX2X is for use in flat and horizontal positions

3.     EXX3X is for flat welding (Eg. E7018)

The last two digits together, indicate the type of coating on the electrode and the welding current the electrode can be used with. Such as DC straight, (DC -) DC reverse (DC+) or A.C.

I won't describe the type of coatings of the various electrodes, but will give examples of the type current each will work with.

ELECTRODES AND CURRENTS USED

• EXX10 DC+ (DC reverse or DCRP) electrode positive.
• EXX11 AC or DC- (DC straight or DCSP) electrode negative.
• EXX12 AC or DC-
• EXX13 AC, DC- or DC+
• EXX14 AC, DC- or DC+
• EXX15 DC+
• EXX16 AC or DC+
• EXX18 AC, DC- or DC+          (Eg. E7018)
• EXX20 AC ,DC- or DC+
• EXX24 AC, DC- or DC+
• EXX27 AC, DC- or DC+
• EXX28 AC or DC+

CURRENT TYPES

SMAW is performed using either AC or DCcurrent. Since DC current flows in one direction, DC current can be DC straight, (electrode negative) or DC reversed (electrode positive). With DC reversed,(DC+ OR DCRP) the weld penetration will be deep. DC straight (DC- OR DCSP) the weld will have a faster melt off and deposit rate. The weld will have medium penetration.

Ac current changes it's polarity 120 times a second by it's self and can not be changed as can DC current.

ELECTRODE SIZE AND AMPS USED

The following will serve as a basic guide of the amp range that can be used for different size electrodes. Note that these ratings can be different between various electrode manufactures for the same size rod. Also the type coating on the electrode could effect the amperage range. When possible, check the manufactures info of the electrode you will be using for their recommended amperage settings.

Electrode Table
ELECTRODE DIAMETER (THICKNESS)	AMP RANGE	PLATE
1/16"	20 - 40	UP TO 3/16"
3/32"	40 - 125	UP TO 1/4"
1/8	75 - 185	OVER 1/8"
5/32"	105 - 250	OVER 1/4"
3/16"	140 - 305	OVER 3/8"
1/4"	210 - 430	OVER 3/8"
5/16"	275 - 450	OVER 1/2"

Note! The thicker the material to be welded, the higher the current needed and the larger the electrode needed.

SOME ELECTRODE TYPES

This section will briefly describe four electrodes that are commonly used for maintenance and repair welding of mild steel. There are many other electrodes available for the welding of other kinds of metals. Check with your local welding supply dealer for the electrode that should be used for the metal you want to weld. E6010 This electrode is used for all position welding using DCRP. It produces a deep penetrating weld and works well on dirty,rusted, or painted metals

E6011 This electrode has the same characteristics of the E6010, but can be used with AC and DC currents.

E6013 This electrode can be used with AC and DC currents. It produces a medium penetrating weld with a superior weld bead appearance.

E7018 This electrode is known as a low hydrogen electrode and can be used with AC or DC. The coating on the electrode has a low moisture content that reduces the introduction of hydrogen into the weld. The electrode can produce welds of x-ray quality with medium penetration. (Note, this electrode must be kept dry. If it gets wet, it must be dried in a rod oven before use.)

It is hoped that this basic information will help the new or home shop welder identify the various types of electrodes and select the correct one for their welding projects.
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6010: Deep penetration with a smooth arc and low spatter. Ideal for use on farm and road equipment, tanks, piping, wrought iron, building structures, jigs, fixtures and general maintenance. DC electrode positive unit must be run on DC welder.

6011: Popular electrode for utility type welders. Works well on rusty, dirty steel. Deep penetration allows for use on bridges, pressure vessels, farm and road equipment, building structures, tanks and pipe. Similar to 6010, but can be used on AC or DC current. Ideal for use on AC welders.

6013LV : Easy operation with a soft arc make it ideal for sheet metal use. Especially poor fitting applications and general repair on light thickness fabrication. AC/DC electrode works well on low cost hobby type welders.

7014: Iron powder coating allows for higher welding speeds and use of a drag technique. Easier to use than most electrodes. AC/DC electrode works well on poor fitting joints and welds requiring a very flat bead.

7018: High quality weld for mild steel makes this the first choice for field construction applications where weld quality is critical. Ideal for carbon steel where cracking is a concern. Keep in a sealed container or an electrode oven when not in use. DC electrode positive.

7018 AC: Designed to operate on AC welders. Easier to operate than most other low hydrogen electrodes. Preferred for its high purity, crack resistant welds on mild and carbon steels.

80LV Red: AC/DC straight or reverse polarity, all position electrode can be used with low voltage machines for short, intermittent or tack welds on thin, medium and heavy sections of mild steel.

252: Welds 310 and 314 stainless subjected to corrosion at elevated temperatures as well as dissimilar steels and stainless of unknown analysis.

275: Produces high tensile and yield strengths on tool, high alloy, string, stainless, aircraft, nickel clad and dissimilar steels.

HY-10: Special high strength electrode is machinable and ideal for joining or build up of low alloy and sulphur steels.

8: Provides a high nickel machinable deposit for welding parts, filling holes and defects and salvaging imperfect castings on thin sections of cast iron. Meets AWS A5.15 Class ENiCl-A.

8-60: Nickel electrode provides machinable deposits with high strength and good ductility for heavy sections of cast iron and ductile iron. Meets AWS A5.15, Class ENiFeCl-A.

6: Provides high strength, dense, sound welds on cast iron where machinability is not needed. Excellent for dirty or grease soaked castings.

4-60: Straight or reverse polarity electrodes provide strong machinable, crack resistant and spatter free deposits without porosity. Fort heavy sections of cast iron, ductile iron, and dissimilar metals. Will not overheat at rated amperage.

24 AC/DC: AC/DC all position electrode produces sound, porosity-free deposits on bronze, brass, copper, cast iron and steel. Joins dissimilar metals or overlay on cast iron or steel.

34 DC: Premium DC reverse, all position, aluminum electrode for joining, build up, cladding and reinforcing of aluminum sheets, plates and castings of 1/8″ or thicker. Has extruded coating, and leaves dense smooth deposits that provide good color match to base metal.

308L AC/DC: Excellent wetting action and bead appearance makes this all position electrode ideal for welding most types of 18-8 stainless steel (304,302). Deposit is highly resistive to corrosion.

309L AC/DC: Higher corrosion resistance and strength than type 308 make this all position electrode ideal for 304 to 309 and 308 to carbon steels. Excellent weld appearance.

316L AC/DC: Provides a stable smooth arc and fine spray metal transfer with a uniform bead that is flat or slightly concave with straight edges. Penetration is complete and the weld metal is free from porosity. Also has good out-of-position characteristics. For 316L and 318 type steels in the chemical industry. Maximum of .03% carbon deposit.

308L-17: Used in paper and chemical industries, food processing equipment, dairies, breweries, distilleries, kitchens and hospitals for welding Cr/Ni steels such as 304L, 308L, 301, 303, 304 and 309.

309L-17: AC/DC reverse, all position electrode for welding carbon steels to stainless at service temperatures below 600 degrees Fahrenheit.

316L-17: AC/DC reverse, all position electrode, low-carbon electrode for join 316 and 316L stainless subject to corrosive media.

HS-2C: Hard facing electrode for severe abrasion and moderate impact with hardness 58-62 Rockwell C.

HS-65W: Hard facing electrode for superior wear resistance involving extreme abrasion with hardness 63-67 Rockwell C.

Ni-Matrix: All position hard facing electrode for constant heavy impact and abrasion with hardness 48 Rockwell C.

Super Join-M: Hard facing electrode resistant to corrosion from water and mild corrosives with severe impact protection on manganese steel and unknown iron base metals.

Chamfer Rod: AC/DC straight all position gouging electrode for ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Stud Plus: AC/DC reverse polarity gouging electrode for removing broken studs and bolts.

General Information about Welding Technology

Introduction to Welding Technology
Welding is a fabrication process used to join materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, together. During welding, the pieces to be joined (the workpieces) are melted at the joining interface and usually a filler material is added to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that solidifies to become a strong joint.
In contrast, Soldering and Brazing do not involve melting the workpiece but rather a lower-melting-point material is melted between the workpieces to bond them together.

Types of Welding

1. Arc Welding:

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

2.  Gas Welding

3.  Resistance Welding

4.  Energy Beam Welding

5.  Solid-State Welding

Welding Terminology
There is some special technical vocabulary (or language) that is used in welding.

Filler Material: When welding two pieces of metal together, we often have to leave
a space between the joint. The material that is added to fill this space during the
welding process is known as the filler material (or filler metal). Two types of filler
metals are commonly used in welding are welding rods and welding electrodes.

• Welding Rod: The term welding rod refers to a form of filler metal that does not conduct an electric current during the welding process. The only purpose Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques of a welding rod is to supply filler metal to the joint. This type of filler metal is often used for gas welding.
•  Electrode: In electric-arc welding, the term electrode refers to the component that conducts the current from the electrode holder to the metal being welded. Electrodes are classified into two groups: consumable and non consumable.
• Consumable electrodes not only provide a path for the current but they also supply filler metal to the joint. An example is the electrode used in shielded metal-arc welding. 
•  Non-consumable electrodes are only used as a conductor for the electrical current, such as in gas tungsten arc welding. The filler metal for gas tungsten arc welding is a hand fed consumable welding rod.

Flux: Before performing any welding process, the base metal must be cleaned form impurities such as oxides (rust). Unless these oxides are removed by using a proper flux, a faulty weld may result. The term flux refers to a material used to dissolve oxides and release trapped gases and slag (impurities) from the base metal such that the filler metal and the base metal can be fused together. Fluxes come in the form of a paste, powder, or liquid. Different types of fluxes are available and the selection of appropriate flux is usually based on the type of welding and the type of the base metal.


Types of Welded Joints

Butt Joint: it is used to join two members aligned in the same plane. This joint is frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe work.

Corner and Tee Joints: these joints are used to join two members located at right angles to each other. In cross section, the corner joint forms an L-shape, and the tee joint has the shape of the letter T.

Lap Joint: this joint is made by lapping one piece of metal over another. This is one of the strongest types of joints available; however, for maximum joint efficiency, the overlap should be atleast three times the thickness of the thinnest member of the joint.

Edge Joint: it is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane. In most cases, one of the members is flanged, as seen in the figure. This type is frequently used in sheet metal work for joining metals 1/4 inch or less in thickness that are not subjected to heavy loads